Teen Pregnancy A Product Of Social Pathology - 856 Words

Teen pregnancy is known as a product of social pathology: parental neglect, emotional deprivation, insecurity, poverty, ignorance, violence. Pregnancy and motherhood in adolescence have a high pejorative, both for the same young to your child if the pregnancy goes to term. The difficulties are numerous, short and long term: the teenager is fragile and becomes more fragile even at pregnancy; medical, school, family and professional prognosis is sober, like the future of the child and the mother-child relationship; They followed pregnancies too early and are a high risk factor and the young mother is unlikely to reach a stable form one day, or even get to obtain a social status of family autonomy. In addition for reasons of biological or psychological immaturity of young teenager, these maternity seem so hard to take because our social system keeps contradictions regarding adolescents. The adolescent mother can conceive a child and give birth, but not prepared by education, social maturity and sufficient autonomy to raise it without difficulty. However, pregnancy is the most important step for a women, where it undergoes physiological changes that favor the correct development of the child. Through many stages, which was a small fertilized egg will become a beautiful baby? Here will be shown the development of pregnancy month by month, week by week. Pregnancy usually lasts 280 days (40 weeks), counting from the first day of the last menstrual period. During that time manyShow MoreRelatedRisk on Studen Prostitute in Zamboanga City4811 Words   |  20 PagesRISKS ON STUDENT PROSTITUTION IN ZAMBOANGA CITY A research proposal Presented to the Faculty of the Department of Psychology College of Social Sciences Western Mindanao State University In partial fulfillment of the requirements in PSYCH 114 (Research in Psychology 1) Dujali, Phil Dominic D. Colico, Jean Paul Agno, Samson CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Many students nowadays Hard-up students are turning to the sex industry to pay for their course fees, accordingRead MoreTexts Fof Written Discourse7878 Words   |  32 Pagesfunctional and unobtrusive, heavy jerseys in neutral mauves and beiges, and sensible shoes. 3. Miss Pope’s permanent accoutrements were a white Saab 96, from which she would wave cheerily whilst driving around the market square, and a rather anti-social dog, a rare breed of Shetland collie called Sheena. Just as Shetland ponies look stunted, so do Shetland collies. Sheena consisted of long, thick, orangey fur on very short legs: imagine Lassie crossed with Dougal from The Magic Roundabout. We adoredRead MoreTexts Fof Written Discourse7893 Words   |  32 Pagesfunctional and unobtrusive, heavy jerseys in neutral mauves and beiges, and sensible shoes. 3. Miss Pope’s permanent accoutrements were a white Saab 96, from which she would wave cheerily whilst driving around the market square, and a rather anti-social dog, a rare breed of Shetland collie called Sheena. Just as Shetland ponies look stunted, so do Shetland collies. Sheena consisted of long, thick, orangey fur on very short legs: imagine Lassie crossed with Dougal from The Magic Roundabout. We adoredRead MoreImpact of Print Media on Society10439 Words   |  42 Pagescontent. First, there is simply too much media content for us to process (Potter, 2004). Television broadcasts are available 24-hour per day, seven days per week. The typical household television set is on for seven hours of the day, and children and teens spend about the same amount of time with new media (Bergsma, 2008). Internet access at home means that there are more ways to spend time with computerized mediated communication. The new media is not only emerging, but converging as telephones becom eRead MorePsy Evaluation Essay11057 Words   |  45 Pagesfollowing are NOT typical symptoms defined by the DSM-5 to diagnose substance use disorder: A. tolerance B.unsuccessful attempts to control or reduce consumption C. nervous facial tics D. withdrawal problems ANS:C PG4 5. In the boxed reading, â€Å"Social Work Major Working in a Casino,† the author describes A. her gambling addiction problems. B. examples of people winning lots of money. C. close surveillance of employees. D. advantages of playing black jack. ANS:C PG6-7 6. A behavior pattern of compulsiveRead MoreOvercoming Social Exclusion : Stories From High Achieving American Indian Students9581 Words   |  39 Pages Overcoming Social Exclusion: Stories from High-Achieving American Indian Students Eryka Charley Pennsylvania State University Abstract The purpose of this qualitative study is to understand the educational experiences of a group of high-achieving American Indian students. Despite strong community value of the importance of obtaining an education, American Indian students struggle to succeed academically, and have the lowest high school graduation rates in the United States (BrayboyRead MoreThe Social Impact of Drug Abuse24406 Words   |  98 PagesNum ber 2 THE SOCIAL IMPACT OF DRUG ABUSE This study was originally prepared by UNDCP as a position paper for the World Summit for Social Development (Copenhagen, 6-12 March 1995) Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Chapter Part one: background I. The drug problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 A. B. C. D. E. TheRead MoreCommunity Health Nursing Final Exam Study Guide Essay15874 Words   |  64 Pageslook at evaluation piece. Are the therapies working for them and making them the best they can be? 3. Caregiver stress and prevention measures that can be done by nurses? (pg. 351, 377) Caregiver burden: the physical, psychological, emotional, social and financial problems that can be experienced by those who provide care for impaired others People become caregivers because they wanted to be with their loved one and they want to keep them out of facilities. They are very selfless and do everythingRead MoreMedicare Policy Analysis447966 Words   |  1792 PagesDrug Administration Subtitle D—Community Living Assistance Services and Supports Subtitle E—Miscellaneous DIVISION D—INDIAN HEALTH CARE IMPROVEMENT TITLE I—AMENDMENTS TO INDIAN LAWS TITLE II—IMPROVEMENT OF INDIAN HEALTH CARE PROVIDED UNDER THE SOCIAL SECURITY ACT 2 DIVISION A—AFFORDABLE HEALTH CARE CHOICES 3 SEC. 100. PURPOSE; TABLE OF CONTENTS OF DIVISION; 1 4 GENERAL DEFINITIONS. rmajette on DSK29S0YB1PROD with BILLS 5 (a) PURPOSE.— 6 (1) IN 7 GENERALRead MoreBhopal Gas Disaster84210 Words   |  337 Pagesseveral of them above 60 years of age, say they will start a fast unto death here next month till their sixpoint charter of demands is met by the government. The demands include setting up of a national commission on Bhopal to oversee medical and social rehabilitation of the victims for the next 30 years, supply of safe drinking water to communities currently drinking poisoned water, speedy prosecution of the accused, 1 25 Years After Bhopal Gas Disaster including Union Carbide Corporation

What is the meaning of Responsibility Free Essays

The ultimate word in life is â€Å"responsibility†. What is responsibility you ask? Responsibility is â€Å"doing the right thing†. Doing the right thing means living a life where every move or decision you make is all your own and you do things that will not harm others. We will write a custom essay sample on What is the meaning of Responsibility or any similar topic only for you Order Now It is a moral belief that as individuals we must behave ethical and be accountable for our actions, and be conscious of our decisions and the impact it has on society. In today’s world I believe we have even more responsibilities then our ancestors. If we do not take responsibility for our actions innocent people can be hurt. You will be frowned upon and will lose the trust of others. Behaving in a responsible way can improve our quality of living. In life we all want freedom and with freedom comes responsibility. So many people today do not want to take responsibility for their actions and the impact it has on others. I know as a child, my mother, repeatedly told me that I must take responsibility for my actions, which I should always think twice before I do something, because my actions could result in a negative outcome. As human beings we are given by God free will. If we make certain choices based on our free will, we must be willing to take responsibility for the effects our decisions may have on the people around us, as well as ourselves. So many people think that if you are a responsible person, you may be a boring person. That is just not true. Just because you choose to be a responsible person, you can still have fun and contribute interesting things to the world. I remember another famous quote by Abraham Lincoln, he stated, â€Å"One cannot escape the responsibility of tomorrow by evading it today†. I remember a famous quote from Albert Einstein that states â€Å"Man must cease his problems to the environment, and learn again to exercise his will – his personal responsibility†. Sometimes freedom can be dangerous and could destroy our society. So many people believe freedom means you have the right to do as you please, however, that is not 100% true. As soon as you stop taking responsibility for what you do in life, it is almost certain you will be doing things that will be harmful to others. This is why it is so important to have laws that society must abide by. As an example, let’s say you are having a get together and you have you stereo on a little too loud. To you and the people attending your party the music is just fine, but to your neighbors it is entirely too loud and disruptive. Wouldn’t you be a responsible person if you made sure that the music was loud enough for you and your guests to enjoy, but not too loud that it would annoy your neighbors? When one recognizes that they are 100% responsible for their life, they will soon see the great achievements that come with being a responsible person. Responsibility is a very valuable trait in all that we do. Taking responsibility for one’s self leads to a more optimistic life and one is able to accomplish all that they want. Sometimes taking responsibility can be a very difficult thing, but in the end one is usually happy that they did. If one chose’s to lead an irresponsible life, they will soon see that they will be living a much uncontrolled life and therefore grow to be very pessimistic. One’s health is also affected by the choices one makes. When we choose to blame others for the wrong doings in our life, we soon see that we have no control. Everyone wants to be in control of their own lives. One must remember that when we are responsible we are willing to accept the outcome be it good or bad. People who take responsibility in life are confident and will have a very high self esteem. The thing we have to remember is what happens to you in your life, or where you may end up at in your life is a result of either taking responsibility or not taking responsibility of one’s actions in the past. We all have the right to choose our own destiny. Another great example is what if we didn’t have laws that we had to abide by and everyone was a loud to just do as they wanted and when we committed crimes, no one would be held accountable. Can you imagine the amount of destruction that would be taking place in this world? So as you can see from my examples, it is very important to be a responsible person. How to cite What is the meaning of Responsibility, Essay examples

The New Economy Essay Example For Students

The New Economy Essay THE NEW ECONOMYIt works in America. Will it go global?It seems almost too good to be true. With the information technology sector leading the way, the U.S. has enjoyed almost 4% growth since 1994. Unemployment has fallen from 6% to about 4%, and inflation just keeps getting lower and lower. Leaving out food and energy, consumer inflation in 1999 was only 1.9%, the smallest increase in 34 years. This spectacular boom was not built on smoke and mirrors. Rather, it reflects awillingness to undertake massive risky investments in innovative information technology,combined with a decade of retooling U.S. financial markets, governments, andcorporations to cut costs and increase flexibility and efficiency. The result is the so-calledNew Economy: faster growth and lower inflation. Most corporate executives and policymakers in Europe and Asia, once skeptical about the U.S. performance, have taken this lesson to heart. There are still widespreadmisgivings about the U.S. model of free-market cap italism. But driven by a desire forfaster growth, combined with a fear of being left behind, the rest of the world is starting to embrace the benefits of a technology-driven expansion. But a global New Economy will not happen overnight. True, spending on technology, the most visible part of the New Economy, while not yet up to U.S. levels, is on the rise everywhere. Semiconductor sales were up 17% worldwide in 1999, while the number of Internet users in Western Europe and the Asia-Pacific region is expected to more than double over the next five years (chart). Even in a developing country such as India, the software industry is growing at a rate of 50% to 60% annually. OLD VIRTUES. But the worldwide proliferation of mobile phones and Web accounts by itself will not bring about a more vibrant global economy. What are also needed are dramatic changes in core institutions that will translate technology into faster productivity growth. That means financial markets better able to fund in novation, more flexibility in corporations and labor markets, a faster pace of deregulation, and increased competition (table). The New Economy is built on old virtues: thrift, investment, and letting market forces operate, says Treasury Secretary Lawrence H. Summers. There are signs that the process of change has started. With growth picking up in Europe, and Asia emerging from its slump, Merrill Lynch Co. is forecasting 3.3% world growth for 2000, with inflation slowing down (chart). Corporate restructuring has begun in Europe and Asia, financial markets are being rebuilt to support innovation, and there is more willingness to take risks. Im seeing the entrepreneurial response almosteverywhere, says Clyde V. Prestowitz Jr., president of the Economic Strategy Institute. Its not Silicon Valley yet, but theres a lot of ferment. Even in slow-growing Japan, Ithink there will be a New Economy, says Toshiba Corp. President Taizo Nishimuro,though he cautions that it wont be the same as the U.S. Nevertheless, the process of shifting to a fast-growth track is still in its early stages in most of the world. Europe is at least two or three years behind the U.S., with Asia lagging even farther behind. While there are pockets of entrepreneurial vigor in places such as Finland, it has turned out to be an enormous challenge to reshape cultures to allow more risk-taking in Europe and Asia, where caution is a virtue. It also takes time for policymakers to adjust to the New Economy. In the U.S., Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan, an enthusiastic proponent of technology-driven productivity gains, resisted great pressure to raise rates in the face of fast growth and low unemployment. By contrast, the two biggest central banks in Europe, the European Central Bank and the Bank of England, have adopted a policy of aggressively raising rates at the slightest hint of inflation, thus choking demand needed to justify business investment. Moreover, investment in risky innovationa linchpin of the New Economydepends on open global markets, since national markets do not provide a big enough payoff for taking big risks. But as shown by the demonstrations against the World Trade Organization in Seattle, there are groups in every country who feel threatened by free trade. A widespread backlash against globalization could remove a key underpinning of the New Economy. Ironically, skeptics also worry that a worldwide investment boom could itself trigger global inflation. The reason? Slow growth in Europe and Asia in the 1990s helped keep commodity prices and interest rates low in the U.S., despite strong growth in America. But as the rest of the world picks up steam, that slack is slowly disappearing. By sometime later this year or early 2001, unemployment in the major industrializedeconomies should drop below the level that triggered inflation in the late 1980s. Thatswhen you get a reasonable test of the New Economy thesis on a global basis, saysStephen S. Roach, chief economist at Morgan Stanley Dean Witter in New York. But despite these obstacles, a shift to a U.S.-style economic model is looking increasingly attractive as a guide to development. Based on the American example, technology-driven growth creates many more jobs than it destroys. Combined with big productivity gains, that allows the unemployment rate to fall without igniting inflationsomething that would be welcome in European countries that have long struggled with high unemployment. Faster growth would also ease the long-term burden of funding the retirement of aging populations in Japan and Europe. OPEN ACCESS. Moreover, the global economy is not a zero-sum game: Faster growth in the rest of the world would have a big payoff for the U.S. as well. Commodity prices mig ht rise at first, but so would exports, bringing down the swelling trade deficits and creating manufacturing jobs at home. U.S. companies would start to see overseas profits accelerate. And then theres the innovation factor. For corporations, the most important justification for spending big bucks on information technology is that it supports restructuring and cost cutting. But from a global perspective, a critical benefit of the Information Revolution is that for the first time it makes data available worldwide. Historically it has taken years, if not decades, for even the most important technological and business innovations to spread across national borders. But thats changing. Now, an engineer in China, say, can log on to the Internet and have immediate access to the treasure trove of data on U.S. Web sites. More important,engineers in developing countries can communicate much more quickly with counterpartsin other countries and learn what works and what doesnt. The gains from f astertransmission of innovation can add up to 1% to global growth rates, according to researchby economists Jonathan Eaton and Samuel S. Kortum of Boston University. Thats anenormous potential boost. But new technology has to be nourished within a larger framework of institutionalchanges. For one thing, openness of domestic markets to foreign trade is vital for turning innovations into real improvements in output. Without competition from overseas, companies make changes slowly and reluctantly. The big gains only come, according to a 1999 study by Catherine L. Mann of the Institute for International Economics, when trade encourages and diffuses the fullest uptake of globally available technological innovation by all firms within an industry. Equally important for sustained no inflationary growth is access to well-run financial markets that can move savings to the most productive investment opportunities, while cushioning the inevitable excesses to which markets are prone. Even small improvements in the way capital is allocated in an economy have enormousconsequences, says Summers. Under a reasonable set of assumptions, an increase in theefficiency of financial markets that decreases interest rates by 20 basis points can add 6%to output over several years. AMERICAN ADVANTAGE. One area where the U.S. excels is the ability to fund innovative companies at an early stage. U.S. venture capital spending doubled to more than $40 billion in 1999. And according to a study by Kortum and Josh Lerner ofHarvard business school, a dollar of venture capital produces three to five times morepatents than a dollar of research and development spending. Venture capital is muchmore potent, notes Kortum. Other countries in Europe and Asia are trying to catch up. In China, for example, the southern city of Shenzhen has just put together its own $120 million venture-capital fund in an effort to stimulate local high-tech developmentjust one of several Chinese cities that has done so. Th e problem is that the new venture funds in Europe and Asia often have corporate or government affiliations, which tend to make them less effective. They dont have the autonomy that we associate with U.S. venture-capital funds, says Lerner. And even if the funding is available, its a slow process to adopt a culture that favors risk-taking and makes it easier for new businesses to start up. This wont take sixmonths, says Bernard P. Vergnes, chairman of Microsoft Europe. Well have to start inthe schools to change the bankers and the politicians of the future and make them lessaverse to risk. It may become easier in the future to entice politicians to jump aboard the NewEconomy bandwagon, as the political advantages become clearer. In India, for example,the new Bharatiya Janet Party government decided to use the vision of an IT-literateIndia as an election promise. In Sweden, Bjorn Rosengren, the minister for industry,employment, and communications, is promising broadband in every home. This comingsummer, the national government is expected officially to give a contract to develop anationwide broadband network to Svenska Kraftnat, which operates the main electricitygrid. There is a growing willingness to back away from central control over national economies, even in the most hidebound of regulated industries. The wave of telecom mergers in Europe shows that the old idea of national monopolies is dead. And in Japan, where high telecom charges were holding back e-commerce, Nippon Telegraph Telephone last fall introduced a flat-rate high-usage Internet access serviceaimed primarily at small offices and heavy individual usersfor $75 a month in parts of Tokyo and Osaka, the two largest cities. Now its contemplating cutting the price, possibly by 50%, by the time it launches the service in major centers around Japan in the next year or so. Nevertheless, the changes are occurring piecemeal. Outside the U.S., there are nodefinitive signs yet of a productivity accelerati on. Countries such as Britain and Japan areactually showing a productivity slowdown, based on measured data. However, it tookyears in the U.S. before productivity data reflected the Information Revolution, and thelag in the global statistics could be much longer. The reason? Starting in the 1980s, U.S. Descriptive Essay Introductionstatistical agencies started adjusting the economic data to take into account the growingpower of computers. Most other industrialized countries have not adopted similarmethodologies, so that New Economy effects will take longer to show up in the numbers. Its become quite an issue, says Jon Beadle, a statistician in Britains Office for National Statistics. What could stop the New Economy from going global? Simultaneous rapid expansion in Europe, the U.S., and Asia could push up the prices on world commodity markets. But unless there is a carte that holds supply downas in the case of oilsuch increases are likely to be temporary and not result in lasting inflation. Take steel, for example. With the worlds mills operating at close to full capacity, we are forecasting a shortage of steel, says Peter Marcus, managing partner of World Steel Dynamics, an Englewood Cliffs (N.J.)-based consulting firm. He predicts that prices of hot-rolled band steel could spike up by 50% later this year. But as buyers and suppliers of industrial products and tools increasingly move onto the Web, it will hold down prices. Improvement in e-commerce will make the pricing structure more competitive, notes Marcus. Sandvik Coromant, a unit of Swedishspecialty steel manufacturer Sandvik, expects 40% of its Scandinavian sales to be via theInternet within three years, allowing it to cut order costs in half. Similarly, soaring demand for the core products of the Information Revolutionmemory chips, microprocessors, and liquid-crystal displaysis likely to push up prices in the short run. Companies such as Gateway Inc. have already complained of shortages. But recent experience shows that new capacity can be quickly created in these industries. The biggest constraint on the spread of the New Economy globally will not becommodity inflation or product shortages. Rather, the main problem will be finding enough highly skilled and computer-literate workers to staff rapidly growing informationindustries. Europe and Japan will have to find a lot of highly skilled workersquicklyasthey try to beef up their New Economy industries. The one big inhibitor is the shortageof skilled labor, says Andrew Milroy of International Data Corp. in London. IDCestimates that the demand for skilled workers will exceed supply by 20% in WesternEurope in 2002. And engineers comprise some 40% of Chinas enormous crop of annualgraduates. It will be necessary to draw on the enormous supply of college-educated workers in countries such as India and China. Asia accounts for two-thirds of the global increase in college and other post-high-school enrollments in the 1990s. Indian universities turn out 122,000 engineers every year, compared with 63,000 in the U.S. And engineerscomprise some 40% of Chinas enormous crop of annual graduates. The growth of the U.S. high-tech industry has been fueled by a steady flow of highly educated immigrants and foreign students. Between 1985 and 1996, foreign students accounted for two-thirds of the growth in science and engineering doctorates at U.S. universities. Most of them planned to stay and work in the country. Like many other aspects of the New Economy, opening up the doors to foreign workers wont come easily in many countr ies. But the genie is out of the bottlenow that the U.S. has shown that faster growth is possible, no country will be able to resist it. In the end, the benefits will be well worth the pain. The Road to the New EconomyHeres what countries must do to get a high-productivity, low-inflation economy BOOST INVESTMENT SPENDING on information technology as a share of GDP RESTRUCTURE CORPORATIONS to cut costs, improve flexibility, and makebetter use of technology OPEN FINANCIAL MARKETS to direct capital to the best uses DEVELOP VENTURE CAPITAL and IPO markets to aid innovative companies ENCOURAGE AN ENTREPRENEURIAL CULTURE and make it easier to startnew businesses INCREASE THE PACE OF DEREGULATION especially in telecom and labormarkets ADJUST MONETARY POLICY to the realities of the New Economy by waiting for inflation to appear before raising interest rates Words/ Pages : 2,438 / 24

Theatre of the absurd1 Essay Example For Students

Theatre of the absurd1 Essay True Meaning of Theater of the AbsurdTheater of the Absurd applies to a group of plays with a certain set of characteristics. These characteristics convey a sense of bewilderment, anxiety, and wonder in the face of an unexplainable feeling. These plays all have unusual actions and are missing a key element that would clearly define other pieces of literature. Language and actions differ from the usual and sometimes cannot be explained in the Theater of the Absurd. In the works of Albee and Ionesco language, behavior, and structure are abnormal if compared to other plays. Language is a key factor that is presented as a weak form of communication throughout â€Å"The Future is in Eggs,† â€Å"The Zoo Story,† â€Å"The American Dream,† and â€Å"The Leader.†The Language as represented throughout the plays written by both Ionesco and Albee are very important elements throughout the plays. In â€Å"The Future is In Eggs,† by Ionesco, meaningless chatter between Roberta and Jacques breaks out during the run of the entire play. We will write a custom essay on Theatre of the absurd1 specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now These incoherent slurs seem to be irrelevant and could easily be replaced with normal speech patterns. In â€Å"The American Dream,† Mommy and Daddy invite Mrs. Barker over for the evening. When Mrs. Barker makes her arrival and enters their house Mommy and Daddy at first seem to be normal and try and make Mrs. Barker comfortable, but as time goes by the conversation becomes more and more unusual. Mommy: Are you comfortable? Won’t you take off your dress?Mrs. Barker: Don’t mind if I do. Mommy: There. You must feel a great deal more comfortable. Mrs. Barker: Well, I certainly look a great deal more comfortable. Daddy: I am going to blush and giggle. Mommy: Daddy’s going to blush and giggle. Mrs. Barker: Your lucky to have such a man for a husband. Daddy: I just blushed and giggled and went sticky wet. The seemingly meaningless speech presented in these plays are represented in what one individual of different form might interpret the human speech pattern to be in that of Mommy and Daddy in â€Å"The American Dream.†The absence of true character development is one of the primary elements of theater of the Absurd; there are no real characters. In their place are one dimensional characters who are representative of a particular aspect of society or non-dimensional characters whose absence of development is in itself symbolic of the indecipherable cosmos that the theater of the Absurd is trying to depict. The plays of Ionesco and Albee are filled with such character types. In Ionesco’s â€Å"The Future is in Eggs,† Father Jacques tells Jacques, â€Å"Here comes your grandfather, fit as a fiddle, to tell you himself how he met his death† (130). Grandfather Jacques is not a ghost. He is dead and mounted in a picture frame; yet he is â€Å"fit as a fiddle,â⠂¬  and proceeds to climb out of the picture to explain his death. In Albee’s â€Å"The American Dream,† Mommy and Daddy at first give the appearance of being really albeit somewhat boring characters. However, the audience learns from Grandma that Mommy and Daddy are anything but traditional parents:Grandma: .it turned out it only had eyes for its Daddy. Mrs. Barker: For its Daddy! Why, any self-respecting woman would have gouged those eyes right out of its head. Grandma: Well, she did. That’s exactly what she did. But then, it kept its nose up in the air. Mrs. Barker: Uggh! How disgusting!Grandma: That’s what they thought. But then, it began to develop an interest in its you-know-what. Mrs. Barker: In its you-know-what! Well! I hope they cut its hands off at the wrists!Grandma: Well yes they did eventually. But first, they cut off its you-know-what. .ue4f646a8d77e5fb04808e5107f4c8c22 , .ue4f646a8d77e5fb04808e5107f4c8c22 .postImageUrl , .ue4f646a8d77e5fb04808e5107f4c8c22 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ue4f646a8d77e5fb04808e5107f4c8c22 , .ue4f646a8d77e5fb04808e5107f4c8c22:hover , .ue4f646a8d77e5fb04808e5107f4c8c22:visited , .ue4f646a8d77e5fb04808e5107f4c8c22:active { border:0!important; } .ue4f646a8d77e5fb04808e5107f4c8c22 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ue4f646a8d77e5fb04808e5107f4c8c22 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ue4f646a8d77e5fb04808e5107f4c8c22:active , .ue4f646a8d77e5fb04808e5107f4c8c22:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ue4f646a8d77e5fb04808e5107f4c8c22 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ue4f646a8d77e5fb04808e5107f4c8c22 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ue4f646a8d77e5fb04808e5107f4c8c22 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ue4f646a8d77e5fb04808e5107f4c8c22 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ue4f646a8d77e5fb04808e5107f4c8c22:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ue4f646a8d77e5fb04808e5107f4c8c22 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ue4f646a8d77e5fb04808e5107f4c8c22 .ue4f646a8d77e5fb04808e5107f4c8c22-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ue4f646a8d77e5fb04808e5107f4c8c22:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Henry Ford Was A Genius In Many Aspects Of Our Everyday Life. He Chang EssayThe audience learns that Mommy and Daddy proceed to cut off the feet of their â€Å"bumble of joy,† remove its spine, and lop off its head. While their names may be representative of all mothers and fathers, Mommy and Daddy are so far form the normal parent, they are not even real, much less symbols of all parents. Structure in Theater of Absurd is either circular meaning that the ending of the play is the same as where it began, and therefore nothing being accomplished, or growing meaning that something is being accomplished or that the audience speculates the ending of what has just happened. â€Å"The Zoo Story,† is based on a growing structure. In the beginning of the play you have learned that Jerry has gone to the zoo. The play builds up to find what Jerry has done at the zoo and when that point comes there is a high point of action and suspense. â€Å"The Leader,† is based on a circular structure because the end is at the same point in which the play has started. The play could go on forever and have no true ending. As the Announcer calls play by play what the leader is doing, it will be hoped that the leader is seen, but in actuality nothing has been accomplished and it starts again from the beginningThe Theater of the Absurd exemplifies the mystery and unusual happenings in life. Although some things seem to happen for a reason if examined closely there is a meaning and something with a greater importance is being hidden beneath the surface. When something is spoken it means nothing, but rather for conversation, it is just as Jacques and Roberta confessing their love and feelings for each other with whimpers and cries. Life can either take two paths a circular path which in nothing is accomplished but rather reviewed, or growing path in which life is for a purpose and something is done. Bibliography:

Structure of Constitution essays

Structure of Constitution essays In 1787, the United States of America is finally starting to develop into a true nation. The Framers of the Constitution realize that the country needs a government that is not over-bearing but is not to liberal. Knowing this, the Framers structured the government in a specific way. First, they made different federal and state powers. Next, they placed the separation of federal powers. Third, the Founders created Congress. After this, a president was chosen. Federal courts were the last structural clause in the Constitution. The Writers wanted to separate the powers into different levels. The first level is called the federal government. This is where the power is shared among state and national delegates. The federal government is broken into different powers. Powers that are reserved for the states to choose laws, such as in the educational purposes. Other powers are reserved for the country as a whole to vote on, like declaring war. This was a smart move because it made the states feel like they have a voice. In some cases, though, the nation had to use both powers as one. These issues, such as collecting taxes, are called concurrent powers. The nation could not give to much power to any one group or person. The Constitution create a separation of powers. This gave the three branches of the government, the legislative, executive, and judicial branches, their own area of authority. The Constitution then gave each branch the right to stop, or check, the others in certain ways if they did not agree with the what the other is doing. The president can veto any acts of Congress. The executive branch is balanced. Which means they can overturn a veto with Congress with two-thirds vote of each house. This practice is called checks and balances. The Constitution also had to limit the control people had over the government. In a comparison of the House of Representatives ...

Business plan - CoViTek Essay Example for Free

Business plan – CoViTek Essay CoViTek is an Atlanta based company that offers a unique value added service to the $11 billion dollars video rental industry. CoViTek will revolutionize the industry by renting movies through its video vending machines. These machines are already experiencing tremendous success in Europe, where they were invented. Customers will now be able to rent videos twenty-four hours a day, seven days a week in a timely and efficient manner at the lowest price. Our machines can be implemented anywhere, even in locations that are not accessible to our brick and mortar competitors, and we will therefore focus our efforts on all the strategic locations. Reve-lution Int. will offer a unique business-to-consumer service for the rental of videos and DVDs. The technology, containing a fully automated system, will facilitate continuous rental and return of movies bridging the gap between video stores, who only are open 15 hours a day, and services such as the nonexistent Kozmo. com, who offer video delivery for a premium price. The company has a cost-per-action (CPA) pricing structure. CoViTek’s target customers will include universities with a student body of at least 10,000 in addition to the rest of the city of Atlanta for the first six months of operation. CoViTek will provide their clientele with a complete set of integrated tools within the machine to make accurate and enjoyable purchasing decisions. CoViTek will give video rental customers the freedom of rental 24 hours a day, seven days a week, all year long. CoViTek will build the world’s truly first convenient and efficient rental system†¦ Target Customers Movie rentals have proven to be an integral part of the everyday lives of the American population. With more than $11 billion dollars in rental sales in 1999, we acknowledge the aggregate demand for the video rental industry. Constantly seeking immediate gratification, video rental stores want the most efficient and cost-effective methods of satisfying their customers. CoViTek will make rentals simple by providing consumers the most efficient tools for with which to initialize a rental process. With the killer application technology used in these machines, the customer will be able to conduct multiple searches in order to rent the movie of their desire. CoViTek will further assist them through the provisions of an active preference search, which is currently being used by Amazon. com. This application will determine what the customer rented last and list the preferred movies of that category the customer will like based on past rental behavior. CoViTek’s potential customers will represent the bulk of video rental households who value rental outlet convenience and flexible payment plans. CoViTek will strive for the most efficient, cost-flexible payments and active searches for preservation of quality time. Market Growth Perspective According to analyst Paul Keagan & Associates, at home movie consumption expenditures will increase approximately 40% by 2005 to $27 billion, almost triple the amount spent in 1990. The vast majority of these expenditures, about 83%, will be for video/DVD rentals and retail. However, movie consumption will also encompass pay-per-view and video on demand (VOD) available through cable and satellite services. Video Production Companies Ninety percent of our videotapes will come from one of the six major production companies: 1. Buena Vista 2. Warner Bros. 3. Universal 4. Fox 5. Paramount, or 6. Columbia-Tri-Star The power of these suppliers is very high, as they hold the exclusive rights to the movies they produce. One of our late competitors, Kozmo. com, has built a unique strategic partnership with these production companies. They have developed a profit sharing system with the major production companies requiring no initial investment in the videos, but agreeing to give 40% of the revenue generated by the rentals to the producer of the movie. We believe that this profit sharing system is financially unattractive, although it will allow us to reduce our initial investment costs; it minimizes our profits which in turn will delay our expansion strategy. We will use an initial video vendor, Video Bicicling, based out of Texas to supply us with our videos and DVDs. They will provide us with the most up-do-date movies for competitive prices. Competitor Differentiation CoViTek differentiates itself from its competitors in several key areas. While companies such as Blockbuster and Hollywood Entertainment offer the same features, only CoViTek will incorporate all of the features described below in a way that gives consumers the ultimate ease of use, active preference search, and extremely convenient locations of operations. Time Availability CoViTek’s competitive advantage is based on its time availability for rentals. The machines will be open and available for usage 24 hours a day, seven days a week, all year round. CoViTek will keep customer service readily available even throughout holidays. Strategic Locations CoViTek will implement the vending machines in key strategic locations after performing a detailed demo-geographical analysis of the city of Atlanta. Locations will initially be university campuses and later the urban areas of the city. Each machine will be located in areas where there is heavy human traffic. Payment Flexibility Our pricing will be flexible depending on the amount of time the video is out. Since CoViTek is a system that is open 24 hours a day there are no late fees associated in our model. Our standard rental time for DVDs is â€Å"midnight of the following day† for a price between $2. 50-$3. 00. Each additional day will be between $1. 50-$2. 00. Video Cassettes will be $3. 99 and if returned within 24 hours $1will be credited back. Each additional day will be $1. 99. (Based on new releases) Active Search CoViTek will use an innovative application technology which actively searches for videos categorized by title, actor, new releases, type of movie (action, thriller, comedy), and most frequently rented movies. Relative Competitive Factor Blockbuster Video Hollywood Video Kozmo. com CoViTek Relative Product Quality and Differentiation i i i i Flexible Payment Plan i E-commerce Based i i Brand Recognition % 100% 63% 40% N/A Locations around campuses i i i i Locations on Campuses i i Large video selection.i i Number of employees less than 5/ location i One of the most compelling aspects of the CoViTek model is its portability into untapped realms of video rental opportunities. This will provide the company with a critical advantage-the flexibility to transform itself in response to competitive challenges or to shifts in the video rental market environment. CoViTek’s flexibility will give downside protection to its owners by insuring that new, innovative means of generating cash flow can be realized. Future elements of CoViTek may include: National Expansion. Video rental opportunities in selected national markets such as: Washington D. C. , Los Angeles, Miami and Huston. Washington D. C: our second location has similar features to our first city of operation. It has a few large universities, widely used public transportation, and high pedestrian traffic. The schools we target will be American University, George Washington University, and Georgetown University. Our downtown locations will depend on areas where there is an intersection of the public transportation lines and high pedestrian traffic. Data Distribution. Future plans may include the sale of CoViTek’s proprietary online consumer data to the major video production companies. Specialized Machine Content Another growth opportunity for CoViTek in the future is the implementation of machines with customized video selection. The content of these machines will be select videos and DVDs targeted toward an audience based on specific themes. These machines will be placed in strategic locations based around their themes. Some possible â€Å"themed† machines may include: classic movie machines, foreign movie machines with Spanish subtitles or dubbing, and award-winning movie machines. The placement of these machines will require careful market analysis and planning, and therefore we plan to wait before implementation to gather enough data about the market and the purchasing patterns of our customers. Investment Needs Michel Khoury founder of CoViTek, has accumulated cash in excess of $10,000 for the development and the start-up cost of the company. CoViTek is now prepared to obtain financing through establishing a line of credit and implementing an equipment loan for its initial machine. It will later apply for loans as needed in order to buy more machines as it expands its operation. Using the machines and earnings as collateral CoViTek should have sufficient funds to obtain a line of credit that will secure its implementation of strategy. The initial stage of funding will be used to complete Web-site development, obtain one machines, invest in computer hardware and software, lease location space needed for the machines and market CoViTek during the first 12 months of operations. After 12 to 18 months of operation, CoViTek will require an infusion of an additional $15,000 to expand its brand image and increase its service offerings at an accelerated pace. Successful development and operation of CoViTek will allow it to be self-sufficient within approximately 9 to 12 months of initial operation. CoViTek will be a for-profit company incorporated in the state of Georgia. CoViTek – Start up costs Machines $20,246. 64 Inventory: video tapes $9,210 Cash/ month $2,808 Advertising $8,000 Legal & Accounting $7,000 Insurance $3,000 TOTAL $50,264. 64 Management team Michel Khoury Chief Executive Officer Founder While founding CoViTek, Michel Khoury is Assistant Managing Director at Bear, Stearns & Co. Inc. He is working hand in hand with the Managing Director of the company in order to implement a system of bringing foreign investment to the company. He has had significance experience with young ventures as he has participated in the creation of several companies nationally and internationally. Michel Khoury is also consultant to the CEO of Santege Capital Asset Management Group in New York City. Michel Khoury graduated in May of 2001 from Emory University with a Bachelor of Business administration with concentrations in Finance, Consulting, Venture Management and Marketing. Business plan – CoViTek. (2017, Aug 04).

Short case study analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Short case study analysis - Essay Example However, his new policy did not work since operating manager including those in Daniels department continued to hire workers informally. David Hall was hired as a research engineer, and his name was presented to the president by a former vice president of engineering company who was not employed by that time. After three months seagle became suspicious about some irregularities in Hall’s background. Hall’s information about where he had undertaken his graduate and undergraduate engineering course was not true. Hall was very competent in his work, and the personnel did not know the strategy for changing the cart before the horse. SWOT analysis Strengths and weaknesses The company’s strength is seen in the fact that it is expecting an increase in of 200% in sales this is a very good margin. Despite giving false information in his application letter, Hall is a very competent professional and even the president wondered what the company would do without him. Personne l manager is a competent human resource manager since he sees the need for having a centralised policy for hiring and recruiting professionals. ... Identification of major problems The major problem in this case study is implementation of centralised policy of hiring professionals. Even after getting the go ahead of coming up with a new practice in his department, the new policy does not work, and other managers are still interfering with how recruitment and hiring is done. When Hall was being employed there was no formal interview done instead, he was called at a home office where a personal interview was done. This act underrated the personnel manager this he was not included in the interview. The interview was conducted by the president who does not have personnel skills and knowledge instead of the personnel director. Another challenge was the uncertainty of how to handle the critical information in Hall’s personnel file. Hall had shown a lot of competence in his work and the company as doing so well through his good work Significant factors Recruitment is one among the foremost vital elements of human resource manage ment, this function of management help to minimise any potential employee’s problems which may arise in the future. Adopting the centralised method is very vital for the organisation to avoid personal conflicts in terms of duties. Possible courses of action However, if the achievement is not done effectively then this may have wide reaching implications for the organisation future. Screening and talent Matching may be a specialist unit of personnel management function. Normally, the human resource manager should accompany the interview panel with an organisational intention of serving to line managers in creating choices on the quality of the candidates to the organisational culture. A

Personal Reflection Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Personal Reflection - Coursework Example Therefore, having been fully equipped with theoretical knowledge on this aspect, I will put to task this knowledge in my career, as well as in everyday life when faced with situations that might require the application of such knowledge. This course has enabled me to experience significant personal growth and helped me to gain important skills that regard to the program. This is important for me in my professional as well as everyday personal life. I have had access to and read different reading material which bear important knowledge on health promotion and disease prevention, as well as development of programs for various target populations. In addition, the various assignments that I have been subjected to throughout the course have been instrumental in helping master and acquire new information on the area of disease prevention and health promotion. Therefore, I will be able to utilise this knowledge in developing programs that aim at disease prevention and health promotion at different levels in society. Apart from the knowledge imparted in me, different activities that I have undertaken in this course have helped me develop various important skills. First, I have improved on my researching skills. The various assignments I have done in this course have required me to do wide research in order to come up with a good paper. Researching on the internet as well as other literature in the print form has highly sharpened my research skills. This is important in my profession. There is wide knowledge and information on various topics today, either in the internet or physical library. Therefore, it is important for one to have good research skills, so that they can choose and utilise only the relevant and valid knowledge. Therefore, this remains an important skill that I will utilise even in future. The course

An Occurrence at Owl Creek Essay Example for Free

An Occurrence at Owl Creek Essay The wind made in the trees branches the music olian harps. Ambrose Bierce uses allusions and imagery to create a sense of wonderment and mysteriousness for first-time readers of his historical fiction story An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge. Within this short story, a man named Peyton Farquhar is being hung from Owl Creek Bridge for trespassing into Union territory during the civil war. As he is dropped the rope breaks and he makes his escape after dropping into the river below. After swimming through gunfire and a vortex, traversing through an endless forest, and suffering thirst and weariness, Farquhar finally reaches his home. Just as he is greeted by his wife, Farquhars world ends as his neck breaks and his body is hanging from the bridge. The sudden conclusion reveals the past events, starting from the rope breaking, was all a hallucination. While the ending shocks many first-time readers, second-time readers may recognize numerous instances of foreshadowing implemented into the figurative language used to create emotion. In order to embed this foreshadowing, Bierce creates certain events in the hallucination that correspond with events outside of the hallucination. Furthermore, he adds conspicuous allusions to Greek mythology. Lastly, Bierce formulates a very unnatural and vague setting around Peyton Farquhar as he is hallucinating. Veteran readers will notice these three key components of foreshadowing. Suddenly he felt himself spinning like a top is an example of foreshadowing found in hallucination events. In the hallucination, Farquhar is spinning around in the vortex of water. In the actual events, he is spinning as he is dropping from the plank. Other examples of this style of foreshadowing exist in the story. e could no longer close them [his eyes] Conscious of the ending, veteran readers will view this quote as a sign that his neck is being constricted in real life due to the rope around his neck. Lastly, He could no longer feel the roadway beneath his feet. shows that Farquhar is in midair, and close to his death. Readers of An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge may at first consider these texts as an emphasis on the weariness of the doo med man. However, these double as premonition for the sudden conclusion. Allusions to a largely known fundament of Greek mythology, Hades, is tilized to further foreshadow the closure of the story. The road was as wide and straight as a city street. No fields bordered it, no dwelling anywhere. this quote is a metaphorical reference comparing the scene in the Farquhars mind to the River Styx in Hades. The small instance of the word fields may refer to the Fields of Asphodel, also found in Hades of Greek myth. Not so much as the barking of a dog suggested human habitation. This quote from the story is an allusion to Cerberus, the three-headed dog of the Underworld. These particular citations all refer to Hades, which is broadly used as a symbol for death. Lastly, Bierce makes use of a strange and vague setting to give readers a feeling of mysteriousness and apprehension. This setting, found towards the concluding paragraphs of the story, also heralding Farquhars death. He distinctly heard whispers in an unknown tongue suggests paranormal entities envisioned around him. In this same setting, the black trees on both sides of the road formed a straight wall, creating a dark and morbid mood with the black trees and the formal configuration of the trees. This bleak setting foreshadows death and instigates a feeling of eeriness. Rereading An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge with familiarity on the story can yield and uncover a myriad of clever and subtle foreshadowing the astounding denouement. Much of the foreshadowing is combined with plot elements, such as setting, suspenseful climax, and figurative language. Ambrose Bierce used the described techniques to contribute to the inconspicuous foreshadowing of the ending, and thus, recreated the meanings of his written words.

Greek mythology :: essays research papers

The Mycenaeans of the ancient Greeks explained the origin of the universe using Greek gods. The gods were the makers of the universe and watched over mortals.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Greeks explained that in the beginning there was emptiness, and the emptiness was called Chaos. From Chaos came the first three immortals: Gaea, who was the earth mother; Tartarus, who ruled the Underworld; and Eros who was the god of love.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Gaea gave birth to Uranus without a partner. Gaea then married her son and she bore him three children called the Hundred-handed giants. The Hundred-handed giants each had fifty heads and one hundred incredibly strong arms. These would be the most frightening creatures that Gaea had. Uranus was afraid of their potential power so he confined them to the Underworld. The Hundred-handed giants became mad with their father and hated them with all their might.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Next Gaea had three Cyclopes. Each Cyclopes had one wheel shaped eye in the middle of their forehead. The Cyclopes were very strong and very skillful. Therefore they became the first immortal craftsmen. Again, Uranus became jealous of their skill and potential power, so he bound them with the strongest chains and threw them into their mother. After nine days and nights, they reached the Underworld. They were condemned there along with their brothers, the Hundred-handed giants. They, in turn, also grew to hate their father.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Gaea then bore the first generation of immortal gods. Later, Uranus named them Titans (â€Å"Stretchers†). He named them stretchers because they had stretched their power and had overthrown his rule. Twelve of the thirteen Titans either controlled the major functions of the universe or had children that did.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Cronus was one of Gaea’s children, a Titan. He killed his father for condemning his children. Before Uranus died he prophesied that â€Å" You murder me know, and steal my throne-but one of your own sons will dethrone you, for crime begets crime.† Cronus was very careful from then on.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Cronus’s wife, Rhea, goddess of earth, bore cronus children and one by one he swallowed each and every one of them. First, three daughters-Hestia, Demeter, and Hera; then two sons-Hades and Poseidon. Rhea was very furious with Cronus. She was determined to make sure that Cronus didn’t eat their next child which she was sure was going to be a son. When the time came, she snuck off down the slope of Olympus to a dark place to have her baby.

Psychometric assessment Essay

Certain people tend to be more obedient than others. Individuals who have the tendency to adopt a submissive, uncritical attitude toward authority figures – authoritarian submission (Adorno, 1950) tends to perform tasks when demanded. Also, people with an external locus of control (a sense that fate rules their life rather than their own actions) tend to be more obedient. However, despite the popular myth that women are more submissive, women and men are relatively equal in the degree to which they will obey demands (Eagly & Carli, 1981). Dehumanisation or deindividuation is the loss of the sense of individual identity and control over our behaviour. Sensory overload, arousal, anonymity, and reduced self awareness are key factors which loosen inhibitions and thus uncharacteristic behaviour is not inline with usual internal standards. According to deindividuation theory, the psychological state of deindividuation is aroused when individuals join crowds or large groups. The state is characterized by diminished awareness of self and individuality. This in turn reduces an individual’s self-restraint and normative regulation of behaviour. In social psychology, deindividuation is a major theory of group behaviour: it provides an explanation of collective behaviour of violent crowds, mindless hooligans, and the lynch mob. In addition, deindividuation has been associated with other social phenomena such as genocide, stereotyping, and disinhibition in other settings such as computer-mediated communication. Several influential studies were conducted to illustrate the force of deindividuation. For example, Zimbardo (1969) carried out a study that inspired much subsequent deindividuation research. In this study, participants were rendered anonymous by clothing them in oversized lab coats and hoods, compared with normal clothes and name tags in the control condition. The participants’ task was to shock a confederate in a situation similar to the classic Milgram studies on obedience. In a first experiment using groups of female students, Zimbardo demonstrated that anonymous participants shocked longer (and therefore more painfully) than identifiable participants, in confirmation of his theory. Another area of controversy in psychology is the area of psychometric testing, which aim to make important decisions affecting individuals and society. Tests are used in a variety of settings to aid selection in education and work and for diagnosis for those with learning and psychological problems. Ability tests were amongst the first psychometric tests to be developed, and controversy has surrounded their use since. Binet and Simon (1905) were commissioned by the French government to find a method to differentiate between children who were intellectually normal and those who were inferior. The purpose was to put the latter into special schools where they would receive more individual attention. In this way the disruption they caused in the education of intellectually normal children could be avoided. This led to the development of the Binet-Simon Scale, and constituted a revolutionary approach to the assessment of individual mental ability. Revisions to the Binet-Simon Scale resulted in the concept of ‘mental age’, an easily understandable concept which significantly increased the popularity of ability testing. Further developments of the tests produced the concept of intelligence quotient (IQ) and resulted in one of the currently most widely used tests, the Stanford Binet Scale. Most intelligence tests measure the general reasoning ability that is involved in many different types of problem solving behaviour. Older types of tests referred to this intelligence factor as general ability, whereas more recent tests have tended to divide the general ability into fluid intelligence (innate and not particularly influenced by one’s environment) and crystallised intelligence (underlying fluid intelligence that is a product of environmental experiences. In recent years, the introduction of the ‘eleven plus’ exam, which is largely compiled of IQ tests, was used to distinguish those who would proceed to grammar school and those who would be relegated to academically inferior secondary schools. Research into the psychometric assessment of intelligence has been the focus of many eminent psychologists including Spearmen, Burt, Eysenck, and Cattell. The latter two also went on further to develop (separate) personality tests, Cattell’s 16PF in 1970, and the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) in 1975. These involve analysing a series of short â€Å"yes/no† questions in an attempt to decipher the nature and character of the person answering them. Today, personality assessments are mainly used in clinical settings, with their use in occupational settings increasing. They may also be used in educational settings in assessing individuals with learning problems and are still widely used and developed within academic and research settings. Personality tests are also widely used today within the work environment, perhaps for deciding whether to employ someone or not, or even to decide who gets made redundant. On the whole, psychometric tests have acceptable validity and therefore make them less prone to error than other types of assessment. The interpretation of psychometric data requires the use of ‘norms’, against which the scores of a particular individual can be compared. Psychometric assessments tend to be the only measures for which norms are available. Psychometric tests are fairly short and therefore time and cost efficient. Many are group tests, and so can be given to a number of people at the same time. In fact the development of computer programmes concerned with psychometric testing means that tests can be administered and scored by a computer, enabling results to be made available quickly and can form the basis of a discussion. Personality tests are particularly cost efficient as they prevent money being wasted on training unsuitable personnel. However, there can be an undue reliance on the results of psychometric tests. Simply discovering that a person has an aptitude for a particular occupation does not guarantee that they will be successful at that job. The mystique of psychometric test results means that they are frequently not discussed with those who complete them. In this sense there is a failure to use psychological testing humanely. Test scores can also be misused. The results of tests should not be used to withhold educational or occupational opportunities from those who may perform less well on tests of ability due to factors that have little to do with intelligence. In any instance, the results can be faked by the participant to influence the results in their favour, and so can be unknowingly misinterpreted anyway. Because of the cheapness and predictive success of many psychometric tests, there may be a failure to use other important information. Psychometric test results should ideally be used alongside other reliable information about a person, otherwise they may wrongly stereotype an individual. Furthermore, there are many cultural and sub-cultural issues that can arise when measuring IQ, which causes much controversy. At the extreme, IQ tests were used to keep out certain immigrant groups from the United States during the 1920’s. Jenson (1969) suggested that genetic differences were the cause of consistently lower IQ scores observed in non white racial groups. Recent controversies relate to the systematic differences attained by different groups in society. Critics say these are the results of bias in test items. Typical examples relate to previously learned information and items using verbal information, typically English, which require reading and writing. Even when tests are translated to the native language of the participants, questions are still raised over the cultural equivalence of certain items (Zindi, 1994). Even tests which explicitly attempt to be culture fair have been questioned. The Raven’s Progressive Matrices test showed that the performance of Asian immigrants has been found to improve over a five year period by an average of 15-20 points, which demonstrates that minorities will be disadvantaged in taking them until they learn different ways of approaching them (Roth, 1990). In 1972, Williams produced the Black Intelligent Test of Cultural Homogeneity (BITCH) in an attempt to highlight cultural biases in test items, which was heavily loaded towards black minorities. Using this test, it is black people who tend to score higher than whites. Particularly in IQ tests that use visual cues, participants may misinterpret an action, and their own cultural biases produce expectations which can alter what they ‘see’. They may use methods derived from an alien culture (emics/etics) and may have a hostile reception which will bias their observations. Observations are made of a sample and may not be typical of the whole culture being studies. It is also wrong to imagine a culture as being a homogenous group of people; differences within a culture may be as large as those between cultures.

Health in Comminities Essay

The Internet has a wealth of information and you are advised to use the Internet as often as possible to broaden your knowledge on certain topics. Prescribed books You are expected to purchase the following prescribed books for this module: Clark, MJ. 2008. Community health nursing: advocacy for population health. 5th edition. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Edelman, CL & Mandle, CL. 2006. Health promotion through the lifespan. 5th edition. St Louis: Mosby. Edelman and Mandle (2006) has very valuable information on health promotion and covers the entire life span, from birth to death. In addition to your study guide, this book is very important: you will find a wealth of information. Clark (2008) is a book on community health nursing that emphasises the dimensions model of community health nursing right through. This is a very valuable model which will help you to gain a holistic and systematic approach towards the individual, family and community. (viii) The information in these two books is complementary. Together with the study guide it will help you to gain the knowledge and skills you will need to supply health care to individuals, families and communities. Activities The activities are planned to either reinforce content, to guide you to tackle upcoming content, or to motivate you to think about issues. You will note that in part 2 of the study guide there is only one activity at the end of each learning unit: here we want you to apply the dimensions model of community health to a member of the family. Feedback on all these activities will be given in annexure A. This CMH2602 module runs parallel with the practice module for Community Health, CMH2126. The theory cannot be separated from the practice. Icons You will find a series of icons in the text to guide you as you progress with your studies. Activity When you see this icon, you will know that you must complete an activity. We may ask you to read a specific section in the prescribed literature, apply given information, think about topics that have not been introduced, find your own information or ask other people for information. Please read the instructions carefully. Assessment criteria This icon indicates the questions that you can use to assess your own understanding of the work. These questions are adapted from the outcomes. You are told what you should do to prove that you have met the learning outcomes. Prescribed reading When you see this icon, study or read the prescribed book as indicated, before continuing with the next section. Learning outcome This icon tells you how you will benefit in the field of practice if you know the content of the specific learning unit. The outcomes tell you what you will be able to do after you have studied the work. h Feedback This icon tells you what was expected from you when you did the activity. It will not necessarily give you all the facts but will give you guidelines on how to answer the question. Not all of the activities will have feedback because many of the answers are given in your prescribed books. (ix) Conclusion This module is designed to enable you to work with families in the community. It is based on the needs and problems of the family. It covers individuals who are part of the family and the family as part of the community. After completion of this module, together with the practice module, you will be able to take responsibility for practising as an independent community nurse in any community setting. PART 1 THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS IN COMMUNITY HEALTH 2 Learning unit 1 Concepts and theories/ models in community health Outcomes Since theories/models provide you with the knowledge you need to practise community health in a scientific way, it is essential for you to be familiar with the various theories/models in the field to be able to apply them to community health. When you have worked through this learning unit you will be able to: * * * * 1. 1 describe various concepts in theoretical thinking explain selected theories/models in detail describe the key concepts and themes of the selected theories/models apply the theories/models to community health Introduction While we will discuss theories/models in general in this learning unit, we will also deal with several selected theories in more depth in order to indicate how they can be applied to community health. It is currently accepted that theories form the basis of community health. Since theories provide us with the knowledge we need to practise community health in a scientific way, it is essential for the community nurse to be familiar with the various theories/models in the field and to be able to apply them to community health. 1. 2 Theoretical thinking as a language The terms theory, model, conceptual framework, conceptual model are often used synonymously in literature. The literature reflects various conflicting opinions about the terms, their usage and meaning. According to Polit and Beck (2008:141) a conceptual model or a conceptual framework represents a more informal mechanism for organising and discussing phenomena or concepts, while theories are more formal in nature. Conceptual theories, frameworks and models are composed of concepts or constructs. These concepts or constructs are interdependent because they systematically demonstrate the relationship between variables. A model is a symbolic representation of concepts or variables with an interrelationship. A phenomenon is the abstract concept under study, often 3 used by qualitative researchers, while a concept is a description of the objects or events that form the basis of a theory. Both models and theories can describe and predict the relationship between phenomena. Models and theories are terms that are often used interchangeably in literature. The term theory is often used to refer to the subject content that student nurses must be taught in the lecture room to acquire the information they need to perform the nursing tasks in practice. Researchers such as Polit and Beck (2008:768) define theory as â€Å"an abstract generalisation that presents a systematic explanation about the relationships among phenomena†. Theories include principles for explaining, predicting and controlling phenomena. In all disciplines theories serve the same purpose. This purpose is to make scientific findings meaningful, and to make it possible to generalise. A theory is composed of concepts and constructs that are systematically related and that are also goal-oriented (Stanhope & Lancaster 2006:196). Types of traditional theories include grand theories and middle-range theories. Grand theories describe and explain large segments of the human experience which are very broad. Middle-range theories explain more specific phenomena such as stress, self-care, health promotion and infant attachment. Metatheory is a term used to label theory about the theoretical process and theory development (Polit & Beck 2008:141). Metaparadigm refers to the main concepts that identify the phenomena or ideas of interest to a discipline, in this case the discipline of nursing. They provide the boundaries for the subject matter of the discipline. The metaparadigm concepts for nursing include person, environment, health and nursing (Clark 2008:67). However, current literature suggests that a four-concept metaparadigm for the discipline of nursing is too limited and suggests additional concepts such as transitions, interaction, nursing process, nursing therapeutics, self-care, adaptation, interpersonal relationships, goal attainment, caring, energy fields, human becoming and other concepts. The best-known and most used concepts are however the first four: person, environment, health and nursing. 1. 3 Choosing a theory/model to apply to community ealth Choosing a suitable theory or model is not always an easy task ? especially when most theories are geared towards the care of individuals and were never designed to apply to groups or communities. The theory or model that is chosen must be flexible enough to be adapted to the community health situation and its aim must be to provide guidance for those who practise community health . The importance of the family or community network and the social network must both be clearly reflected, and the theory or model must be realistic and simple enough to understand and apply. In addition, the theory/model should harmonise with the community nurse’s views about the individual, the environment, personal health and community health. You may find that the theory that is chosen may not always fulfil all your expectations and that it may also not be applicable to all circumstances. You may often be required to make adjustments or to develop your own personal model on the basis of existing theories. 4 Activity Explain why community health nursing should be based on a model or theory. h Feedback You should have considered the following points: * * * * * 1. 4 A systematic approach is needed. Theories/models assist community nurses to evaluate health status and to plan, implement and evaluate effective nursing care. The model/theory used directs attention to relevant aspects of the client situation and to appropriate interventions. Epidemiologic models help in examining factors that influence health and illness. Nursing models suggest interventions to protect, improve and restore health. The dimensions model of community health nursing Clark’s (2008:69) dimensions model of community health nursing is one of the few models designed for community health. This model is described in detail in your prescribed book (Clark 2008) and will therefore only be summarised here. This model is a revision of the previously titled Epidemiologic Prevention Process Model. The dimensions model incorporates the nursing process and the levels of prevention as well as an epidemiologic perspective on the factors influencing health and illness. The dimensions model consists of three elements: the dimensions of health, the dimensions of health care and the dimensions of nursing. The dimensions of health include: * * * * * * the the the the the he biophysical dimension psychological dimension physical environmental dimension socio-cultural dimension behavioural dimension health system dimension The dimensions of health care include: * * * primary prevention secondary prevention tertiary prevention The dimensions of nursing include: * * * * cognitive dimension interpersonal dimension ethical dimension skills dimension 5 * * process dimension reflective dimens ion You should study this model to enable you to assess the health status of individuals, families or communities and to guide your nursing interventions. Prescribed book Study chapter 4 in Clark (2008, or later editions), on the dimensions model of community health nursing. Activity (1) Name the three elements of the dimensions model of community health nursing. (2) List the dimensions included in each element. (3) Give an example related to the dimensions in each element that addresses the health of a population group. 1. 5 Orem’s self-care deficit theory of nursing Orem proposes a general theory of nursing which she calls the theory of self-care deficit. Orem’s theory focuses on people’s ability to practise self-care. The dominant theme of her philosophy of health is that people should be empowered and encouraged to practise their own self-care by means of their own efforts or with the help of significant others. Orem’s self-care deficit theory of nursing consists of three interrelated theories: the theory of selfcare, the theory of self-care deficit and the theory of nursing systems. This theory is consistent with community health, based on the following premises: * * * Individuals and groups must accept responsibility for their own health and consequently care for themselves. The community nurse should provide the necessary training and support that will enable individuals or communities to do this. The community nurse should intervene only when a deficit or need arises in the selfcare framework. The World Health Organization (WHO) also strongly emphasises that self-care and selfresponsibility play an important role in achieving the goal of optimal health. 1. 5. 1 Theory of self-care In order to understand the theory of self-care, one must first understand the concepts of self-care, self-care agency, basic conditioning factors and therapeutic self-care demand. Self-care include those activities and decisions which a person undertakes in order to maintain life, health and well-being. These activities are acquired by learning, and they contribute to the maintenance of human development and functioning. 6 Self-care agency refers to the ability of a person to exercise self-care in daily life. The ability to care for oneself is affected by basic conditioning factors: age, gender, developmental state, health state, socio-cultural factors, health care system factors, family system factors, patterns of living, environmental factors and resource adequacy and availability. Therapeutic self-care demand is the sum total of the measures which are called for at a particular time for the promotion and maintenance of health, development and general well-being. In the case of self-care, purposeful actions and steps are taken. Although selfcare should benefit an individual’s health, his or her perception of self-care may not always promote good health, as is the case with a person who smokes in the belief that it reduces his or her stress levels. Self-care requisites refer to the reasons for which self-care is undertaken. The three categories of self-care requisites include universal, developmental, and health deviation. Universal self-care requirements include those processes which are essential for the normal functioning and maintenance of health and life, such as the following processes: * * * * * * having and maintaining sufficient fresh air/oxygen, water and food intake finding the balance between exercise and rest, and having social interaction avoiding dangers and obstacles that can compromise human functioning and well-being promoting human functioning and development in a group roviding care associated with elimination processes and personal hygiene keeping a balance between being alone and social interaction Developmental self-care requisites are divided into two categories: * * The first concerns the maintenance of those conditions which are favourable to a person’s normal growth and development. The second is concerned with the prevention of those negative conditions, forces, influe nces and factors which can hinder and obstruct normal development. Awareness of such requirements reflects a person’s level of development and his or her general capacity for self-care. Health deviation self-care is necessary for preventing illness, injury and retardation. It involves taking whatever steps are necessary for preventing or treating illness or disability effectively. The requisites for health deviation self-care include: * * * * * * seeking and securing appropriate medical assistance being conscious of and attending to the effects and results of pathologic conditions conducting medically prescribed diagnostic, therapeutic and rehabilitative measures attending to or controlling the negative effects of prescribed medical treatment effectively ccepting oneself as being in a specific state of health and in need of particular forms of health care developing and sustaining health-optimising lifestyles 1. 5. 2 Theory of self-care deficit The theory of self-care deficit forms the core of Orem’s general theory of nursing. According to this theory, an adult who is unable to practise self-care requires dependent care; this refers to an adult who does not h ave the ability to meet his or her own needs or 7 only has partial ability to take care of himself or herself. This may happen or example when a person falls ill and this illness generates new demands, requiring the implementation of complex measures and specialised knowledge. Orem cites the following examples of support or help which can be offered in such circumstances: * * * * * acting on behalf of a person or undertaking certain activities for this person until he or she can once again care for himself or herself more independently providing guidance and direction in the new situation providing physical and psychological support creating and maintaining a new environment which supports personal development providing appropriate relevant instructions A self-care deficit occurs where there is a discrepancy between the need for self-care and the ability to manage this self-care. In such circumstances the individual needs to be assisted and educated to administer whatever self-care he or she may need. In short, a self-care deficit occurs when a person is unable to practise appropriate self-care on his or her own or without external assistance. 1. 5. 3 Theory of nursing systems The theory of nursing systems consists of two components: the nursing agency, and nursing systems. The nursing agency refers to the characteristics of people who are trained as nurses that enable them to act, to know and to help others meet their therapeutic self-care demands by developing their own self-care agency. Nursing systems are created when nurses use their knowledge and skills to plan and implement nursing care where there are deficiencies in self-care. The aim of intervention by the nurse is to compensate for the self-care activities which the individual, family or community cannot maintain at an optimal level. These compensatory activities are classified into: * * * The wholly compensatory system where the community nurse becomes the self-care agent to compensate for the client’s inability to maintain his or her own self-care. The community nurse cares for and supports the client wholly. For example, this would happen where a person is in a coma and cannot consciously look after himself or herself. The partly compensatory system where the client is capable of certain self-care measures but only to a limited degree. The aim of health care intervention is to lend support and carry out certain activities on behalf of the client until he or she is able to resume them again. The supportive/educational system where the client can manage self-care but needs the support and guidance of the community nurse. The community nurse regulates the selfcare agent’s performance and development so that he or she can function more independently (George 2002:126). Activity (1) Describe the different components of the self-care deficit theory of nursing. 8 (2) Explain what is meant by a self-care deficit. (3) A mother and her two-month-old baby visit your clinic. The baby is not gaining sufficient weight and the mother appears tired and stressed. Identify the self-care deficit in this particular case. h Feedback You should have covered the following points in your answer: (1) The mother is not able to care for herself with the demands of a new baby. (2) She therefore needs health education and advice on how to handle the situation. 1. 6 Neuman’s systems model/theory According to Neuman, her personal philosophy of helping each other live contributed to development of the holistic systems perspective of the her systems model. Neuman’s theory is based on: * * the two main components of stress and the individual or his or her body’s reaction to that stress the community’s reaction to certain stress factors (stressors) in the environment Neuman based her systems model on a general systems theory and regards the client as an open system which reacts to stressors in the environment. Stressors may be intra-personal, inter-personal or extra-personal. Intra-personal stressors occur within the client system boundary and correlate with the internal environment (eg feelings such as anxiety or anger within a person). Inter-personal stressors occur outside the client system boundary and have an impact on the system (eg stimuli between people such as role expectations). Extrapersonal stressors also occur outside the ystem boundaries, but are further away from the system than the inter-personal stressors (eg work or finances). Environment includes all the external and internal influences that surround the client system. The external environment exists outside the client system and the internal environment exists within the client system: * * * * The client system contains a basic structure or core construct (individual, family c ommunity) which is protected by lines of resistance. The basic structure includes system variables such as physiological, psychological, socio-cultural, developmental and spiritual variables. Penetration of the basic structure results in death. The normal level of health is identified as the normal line of defence which refers to the client’s usual state of wellness and represents stability over time. When the normal line of defence is invaded or penetrated, the client system reacts, for example with symptoms of illness. The flexible line of defence prevents stressors from invading the system and is a dynamic state of wellness that changes over time. It can for example be altered in a relatively short period of time by factors such as inadequate sleep or food. The lines of resistance protect the basic structure and become activated when the normal line of defence is penetrated by environmental stressors. If sufficient energy is 9 * available, the normal line of defence is restored; but if the lines of resistance are not effective, death may follow. Reconstitution involves stabilisation of the system and movement backwards to the normal line of defence. Health care intervention takes place in the prevention modalities, that is the primary, secondary and tertiary levels of prevention. (Clark (2008:67)) Prescribed reading Study Neuman’s model in Clark (2008, or later editions). Activity (1) (2) (3) (4) Explain what Neuman means by client variables. Describe the concepts of line of resistance and normal line of defence. Describe Neuman’s view on health. Define the term stressor. This theory/model can also be applied to community health because a preventive approach is followed and because of its flexibility. 1. 7 Pender’s health promotion model Pender described a model which is applicable to community health in particular. This model is based on principles of health promotion and, to a certain extent, corresponds with the Health Belief Model. Pender’s health promotion model comprises three basic concepts, namely individual perceptions, variables which can influence healthy behaviour and the probability that actions will be taken to promote health: * * * Individual perceptions include factors such as how important health is seen to be, perceptions on control and effectiveness, the definition of health, the state of health, the advantages inherent in preventive measures, and possible obstacles. Variables include factors such as demography, income, literacy, culture and family health patterns. The probability that action will take place includes matters such as ? ? ? ? how highly the person rates or values action any previous experience with health personnel the availability and affordability of preventive services the threat that the condition holds for the individual or family Prescribed reading Study Clark (2008, or later editions), the section on Pender’s health promotion model. 10 Activity (1) Name the variables which can affect the preventive actions that a family and a community may take. (2) Write short notes on individual perceptions and indicate how they can influence health-promoting actions. Pender’s model is applicable to community health because the promotion of health is taken as the starting point and factors which influence the measures for promoting health are defined and emphasised. The model can guide and lead the community health nurse in promoting health. On the grounds of the variables and perceptions that are identified, she/he can make decisions on the degree of intervention that is necessary. For example a degree of knowledge and motivation may seem necessary to allow the community to take certain promotive actions, or to decide whether or not the available options are acceptable. The community health nurse’s task could then be to give the community the necessary information or to influence them to modify perceptions that are detrimental to their health. Depending on the specific problems or behaviour that deviates from a healthy living pattern, the culture of the community, the level of literacy and so on, the community health nurse can plan a programme or develop his or her own model based on Pender’s promotive model. (Clark 2008:257) 1. 8 Gordon’s functional health pattern framework Historically, conceptual models in nursing have employed Gordon’s health-related behaviours and developed them into an assessment model with 11 functional health patterns. Your prescribed book (Edelman ; Mandle 2006) uses this framework throughout in the assessment of each developmental stage. The 11 functional health patterns include: * * * * * * * * * * * pattern of health perception-health management nutritional-metabolic pattern elimination pattern activity-exercise pattern sleep-rest pattern cognitive-perceptual pattern self-perception-self-concept pattern roles-relationships pattern sexuality-reproductive pattern oping-stress tolerance pattern values-beliefs pattern (Edelman ; Mandle 2006:131) Read Edelman and Mandle (2006 or later edition), the section on functional health patterns: assessment of the individual. 11 1. 9 Conclusion Various theories/models applicable to community health were discussed in this learning unit. It is very important that you as a community hea lth nurse have an understanding of these theories/models and how they could be applied to community health. Assessment criteria (1) Define the following terms: ? ? ? ? ? theory model conceptual framework phenomenon concept (2) (3) (4) (5) 6) Define the different constructs of Orem’s theory. Explain the defence mechanism in Neuman’s theory. Describe the principles on which Pender’s promotion of health model are based. Name the three elements of the dimensions model of community health nursing. Name the dimensions of the dimension of health in the dimensions model of community health nursing. (7) List the functional health patterns in Gordon’s functional health pattern framework. Note: Application of selected models/theories will be assessed in part 2 of the study guide. 12 PART 2 THE INDIVIDUAL AND FAMILY AS CLIENT 14 Learning unit 2 The family as client Outcomes When you have worked through this learning unit you will be able to: * * * * * * * 2. 1 describe the concept of family describe the structure of the family describe different family types and their characteristic features describe the stages of family development discuss family functions describe the family as a social system discuss cultural values in the family Introduction The family is the basic social unit in any community. Family members usually share living arrangements, responsibilities, goals, the continuity of generations, and a sense of belonging and affection. How well a family works together and meets any crisis depends on the composition of the family (the structure), the activities or roles performed by family members (the functioning) and how well the family is able to organise itself against potential threats. 2. 2 Describing the concept of family Clark (2008:318) states: â€Å"A family is a composed of two or more persons who are joined by bonds of sharing and emotional closeness and who identify themselves as being part of the family. Unlike those of other social systems, family relationships are characterized by intimacy, emotional intensity, and persistence over time. ‘ Santrock (2006:216) states: â€Å"[The family is] a social system, a constellation of subsystems defined in terms of generation, gender and role. Divisions of labour among family members define particular sub-units, and attachments define others. Each family member is a participant in several subsystems. Some are dyadic (involving two people) some polyadic (involving more than two people). † Stanhope and Lancaster (2006:322) refer to the following definition: â€Å"A family refers to two or more individuals who depend on one another for emotional, physical, and/or financial support. The members of the family are self-defined. † 15 Activity Ask different members of the multi-disciplinary health team to define family. Analyse the responses for similarities and differences. 2. 3 Structure of the family Family structure is the organised pattern or hierarchy of members that determines how they interact. Components of a family structure include the role of each family member and how they complement each other, the family’s value system, communication patterns and power hierarchy. The family structure influences the way that a family functions. Allender ; Spradley 2005:526) The genogram shows family information graphically in order to view complex family patterns over a period of time, usually three generations or more. d. 1956 Heart Peg 71 Housewife Al 72 Grocer Sue Housewife John Steelworker d. 1982 Cancer Mark 37 Engineer Jan 36 Housewife Jim 9 Jack 46 Mechanic Mary 16 Pat 41 Waitress Married 1979 Steve 18 Clerk Earl 17 Student Detroit Fig 2. 1 Genogram Source: Allender ; Spradley (2005:528) Nan 4 Married 1977 Divorced 1979 Joe 45 Teacher Sam 20 Student Lou 13 Los Angeles Married 1983 Ann 39 Nurse Pam 11 16 Activity Draw a genogram of your own family. 2. 4 Types of families There are many family types and a family type may change over time as it is affected by birth, work, death, divorce and the growth of family members. * * * * * * * The nuclear conjugal family. The traditional nuclear family structure consists of a husband, wife and children. Most young people move away from their parents when they marry and form nuclear families (no grandparents, aunts or uncles live in the home). The nuclear family is found in all ethnic and socio-economic groups, and is accepted by most religions. Today the number of nuclear families is declining as a result of the increase in divorce, single parenthood and remarriage, the acceptance of alternative lifestyles, and greater disparity. The extended (multi-generational) family. The extended family includes the nuclear family as well as other family members such as grandmothers, grandfathers, aunts, uncles, cousins and grandchildren. The advantage of such a family is that it means more people may serve as resources during crises and also provides more role models for behaviour and learning values. The single parent family. Single parent families consist of an adult woman or man and a child or children. Single parent families result from divorce, out-of-wedlock pregnancies, absence or death of a spouse, or adoption by a single person. A health problem in a single parent family is almost always a serious matter, because there is no backup person for childcare when the parent is ill. The blended family. The term blended family refers to a remarriage or a reconstituted family, where a divorced or widowed person with children marries someone who also has children of his or her own. Children of blended families are exposed to different ways of living and also have increased security and resources. They may become more adaptable to new situations. However, rivalry may arise among the children for the attention of a parent or there may be competition with the step-parent for the love of the biological parent. The communal family. The communal family is made up of groups of people who have chosen to live together as an extended family group. Their relationships with each other are motivated by social values or interests rather than by kinship. Because of the number of people present, members may have few set traditional family roles. The values of commune members are often religiously or spiritually based and may be more oriented to freedom and free choice than those of a traditional family structure. The cohabitation family. The cohabiting family consists of two persons who are living together, but remain unmarried. They may be heterosexual or homosexual. Some such relationships are temporary but others are long-lasting. Reasons for cohabitation include the desire for a trial marriage, the increased safety that results from living together and financial factors. The single alliance family. Many single young adults live together in shared apartments, dormitories or homes for companionship and financial security. Although these relationships are often temporary, they have the same characteristics as cohabitation families. 17 * * The homosexual family. The homosexual family is a form of cohabitation where a same sex couple live together and share a sexual relationship. Such a relationship offers support in times of crisis that is comparable with that offered by a traditional nuclear or cohabitation family. The foster family. Children whose parents are unable to care for them are laced in a foster home by a child protection agency. Foster parents usually receive remuneration for their care. Foster families may also include the parents’ own biological or adopted children. Foster care is theoretically temporary until children can be returned to their own parents (Clark 2008:318). Prescribed reading Read Clark (2008, or later edition), types of families. 2. 5 Stages of family development Stage 1: Beginning family During this first stage of family development, members work to accomplish three specific tasks: * * * to establish a mutually satisfying relationship to learn to relate well to their families of origin f applicable, to engage in reproductive life planning The first stage of family life is a tenuous one, as evidenced by the high rate of divorce or separation of partners at this stage. The time frame for this stage extends from marriage to the birth of the first child. Stage 2: The early child-bearing family The birth or adoption of a first child is usually an exciting yet stressful event in a family. It requires economic and social role changes. The duration of this stage is from the birth or adoption of the first child to 30 months after this date. The following developmental tasks are usually accomplished during this stage: * * * he establishment of a stable family unit the reconciliation of conflict regardin g developmental tasks facilitating developmental tasks of family members Stage 3: The family with pre-school children A family with pre-school children is a busy family as children at this age demand a great deal of time related to growth and developmental needs and safety: accidents are a major health concern at this stage. The time frame for this stage is when the oldest child is two to five years of age. Developmental tasks during this stage include: * * * integration of second or third child socialisation of children beginning of separation from children 18 Stage 4: The family with school-age children Parents of school-age children have the major responsibility of preparing their children to be able to function in a complex world. At the same time they have to maintain their own satisfying marriage relationship ? this can be a difficult time for a family. Many families need the support of tertiary services such as friends, church organisations or counselling. The time frame for the family with school-age children is when the oldest child is 6 to 13 years old. Developmental tasks during this stage include: * * * separation from children to a greater degree fostering education and socialisation aintenance of marriage Stage 5: The family with teenage/adolescent children The primary goal for parents with teenagers differs considerably from that of the previous developmental stages. Family ties must now be loosened to allow adolescents more freedom and prepare them for life on their own. Rapid technological advances have increased the gap be tween generations ? this can make stage 5 a trying time for both parents and children. Violence, accidents, homicide and suicide are the major causes of death in adolescents ? and death rates from HIV are growing. This places a still greater responsibility on the family. The time frame for this stage is when the eldest child is 13 to 20 years of age. Developmental tasks of this stage include the following: * * * maintenance of marriage development of new communication channels maintenance of standards Stage 6: The launching centre family For many parents this stage when children leave to establish their own households is the most difficult. It appears as though the family is breaking up and parental roles change from those of mother and father to guideposts. The parents may experience a loss of self-esteem as they feel themselves replaced by other people. For the first time they may start feeling old and less able to cope with responsibilities. The time frame for this stage is from the time the first child leaves home to the time the last child leaves home. The following developmental tasks should be accomplished during stage 6: * * * * * promotion of independence integration of in-law children restoring of marital relationship developing of outside interests assisting own aging parents Stage 7: The family of middle years At this stage a family returns to a two-partner nuclear family, as before childbearing. Some partners see this stage as the prime time of their lives with the opportunity to do things they never had time or finances for, such as travelling and hobbies. Others may experience this time as a period of gradual decline without the constant activity and stimulation of children in the home and may experience the â€Å"empty nest† syndrome. Support people may 19 also not be as plentiful as earlier in the parents’ lives. The time frame for this stage is from the time the last child leaves to retirement. Developmental tasks for this stage include: * * * developing leisure activities provision of a healthy environment ustaining a satisfying relationship with children and grandchildren Stage 8: The family in retirement or older age The number of families of retirement age is increasing rapidly, with people living longer as a result of advanced technology, medical research and increasing health consciousness. Family members of this group are, however, more apt to suffe r from chronic and disabling conditions than people in the younger age groups. The time frame for this stage lasts from retirement to death. Developmental tasks include the following (Clark 2008:323): * * * maintaining satisfying living arrangements adjusting to reduced income djusting to loss of spouse Prescribed reading Study Duvall’s and Carter and McGoldrick’s stages of family development in Clark (2008, or later editions). 2. 6 The family as social system All families share certain characteristics. Every family is a social system with its own cultural values, specific roles, functions and structure and each family moves through recognisable developmental stages. A social system consists of a group of people who share common characteristics and who are mutually dependent. What affects one member affects the whole family, and vice versa. Families have certain features that differ from other social systems: * * * Families last longer than many other social systems. F amilies are inter-generational social systems consisting of three or sometimes four generations. Family systems include both biological and affinal relationships (relationships created by law or interest). Biological aspects of family relationships create links to a larger kin group that are not found in other social systems. A social network support map gives a detailed display of the quality and quantity of social connections. The community nurse can use this to help the family understand its support systems and to form a basis for nursing interventions. 20 Fig 2. Social network support map Source: Allender ; Spradley (2005:528) 2. 7 Cultural values in the family The cultural values in a family can have a major influence on how a family views health and health care systems. Each new generation takes on the values of the previous generation, passing traditions and cultures from generation to generation. A family’s cultural values and behaviours can either facilitate or imped e the promotion of health and prevention of disease. Prescribed reading Read Clark (2008, or later editions), the chapter on the cultural context. Activity (1) Apply the four principles of cultural assessment to the family. 2) Discuss culturally competent care. h Feedback Note the following points: 21 (1) You needed to view the culture in the context in which it developed, examine the underlying premise of culturally determined behaviour and the meaning of behaviour in the cultural context. There is a need to recognise intercultural variation. (2) You needed to define cultural competence, consider the characteristics and challenges of cultural competence and the modes of culturally competent care. 2. 8 Family functions Family functions are the activities that a family performs to meet the needs of its members. These needs include basic needs such as food, clothes, housing, emotional support and guidance. All families ? regardless of the type of family ? have in common these basic needs that require a family to function in certain ways to ensure family survival. As the social system changes, the family system has to adapt if it is to meet individual needs and equip its members to participate in the social system. The family is a hierarchical system which is usually built on kinship, power, status and privileged relationships that may be related to age, gender, personality and health. All family functions can be reduced to two basic ones: * *